|
|
| |
 2.1.
The structure of the clause |
Clauses are described in terms of abstract
underlying clause structures, which are mapped onto the actual
form of the corresponding linguistic expression by a system
of expression rules. Schematically:
1.
The underlying clause structure is a complex abstract structure
in which several levels/layers of formal and semantic organization
are distinguished:
2.
Clause and Proposition form the interpersonal
level; the other three form the representational level (cf.
Hengeveld 1989). |
|
| |
| 2.2.
Predicates and predicate-frames |
All predicates, or contentives, of a
language are stored in a Lexicon. Predicates are contained
in predicate-frames, structures which specify their fundamental
semantic and syntactic properties, such as (i) the syntactic
category of the predicate (Verbal, Nominal, Adjectival), (ii)
the number of arguments, (iii) the semantic functions of the
arguments (Agent, Patient, Recipient, etc.).
3.
The order in which the predicate and the arguments are given
has no direct or necessary relation to the linear order in which
these constituents will finally be realized.
Predicate-frames can be extended by satellites (non-arguments).
The semantic functions of the satellites express the relation
between the predication or proposition and the satellites, whereas
the semantic functions of the arguments express the relations
between the predicates and the arguments. Consider:
4.
|
|
| |
| 2.3.
Terms and term formation |
The variables indicating the arguments
in predicate-frames and satellites can be replaced by terms,
i.e. the forms underlying NPs. Two types of terms are distinguished:
(i) basic terms, expressions which can only function as terms
and are given as such in the lexicon (e.g. personal pronouns,
proper nouns, question words) and (ii) derived terms, which
can be formed by the following general schema:
5.
Here xi is the term variable symbolizing the intended referent
of the term; the symbol Ω
indicates one or more term operators
(operators for definiteness, number etc.); each Φ(xi) indicates
some `open predication in xi', that is, a predicate-frame all
of whose argument positions have been bound except for xi. Each
open predication in xi can be regarded as a restrictor specifying
some property which xi must have in order to qualify as a potential
referent of the term.
6.
(6) is to be read as: "he definite single entity xi such that
boy of xi, such that young of xi" (the young boy).
|
|
| |
| 2.4.
Predication |
Nuclear predications consist of predicates
and terms. Terms refer to entities in some world, and predicates
designate properties of, or relations between such entities.
A nuclear predication as a whole designates a set of States
of Affairs (SoAs). The term State of Affairs (SoA) is used
in the broad sense of 'conception of something which can be
the case in some world'.
SoAs can be divided into different types, according to the values
which they can have for a number of distinguishing parameters.
These parameters and their different values together define
a semantic cross-classification of SoAs. The most important
semantic parameters defining the typology of SoAs are Control,
Dynamism, Telicity, and Momentaneousness. Nuclear predications
can be further specified by predicate operators and satellites,
both operating at Level 1. Operators: e.g. aspectual distinctions;
satellites: e.g. terms with the function of Manner, Speed, and
Instrument. The result of these extensions is called core
predication. E.g. (7) in which the Perfective operator applies.
Also note the satellite with the function of Manner:
7.
Core predications can be further specified by predication operators
and satellites, both operating at Level 2. Operators: e.g. temporal
and some modal distinctions; satellites: e.g. terms with the
function of Time and Place. The result of these extensions is
called extended predication. For instance (8) in which
the Tense operator with the value of Pres applies. Note the
satellite with the function of Location:
8.
|
|
| |
| 2.5.
Proposition |
Extended predications can be built into
a propositional structure, in which the extended predication
is used to specify a possible fact. Extended predications can
be further specified by proposition operators and satellites,
both operating at Level 3. Operators: e.g. some modal distinctions;
satellites: e.g. terms which specify the attitude of the Speaker.
The result of these extensions is called extended proposition.
For instance:
9. |
|
| |
| 2.6.
Speech act |
Extended propositions can be built into
a speech act structure. Extended propositions can be further
specified by illocutional operators and satellites, both operating
at Level 4. Operators: e.g. Declarative, Imperative, and Interrogative;
satellites: terms which specify the speech act. For instance:
10.
|
|
| |
| 2.7.
Syntactic function assignment |
Syntactic functions express the
perspective in which a certain SoA is presented. The following
two linguistic expressions are assumed to be based on the same
underlying predication, and thus designate the same set of SoA's.
The difference is that in (11a) the SoA is presented from the
point of view of `the man' and in (11b) from the point of view
of `the car':
11.
Such differences are accounted for by assigning the Syntactic
functions Subject (primary vantage point) and Object (secondary
vantage point) to certain terms in an underlying predication.
Compare:
12.
In a similar way, Object assignment is used to differentiate
between constructions such as:
13.
|
|
| |
| 2.8.
Pragmatic function assignment |
Pragmatic functions are functions
which specify the informational status of the constituents involved
in the wider communicative setting in which they occur. Alternative
assignments of pragmatic functions are sensitive to the Speaker's
estimate of the pragmatic information of the Addressee at the
moment of speaking. Consider the following two alternative expressions
of one and the same underlying predication:
14.
The different intonational contour must be due to a different
assignment of pragmatic functions. Consider:
15.
|
|
| |
| 2.9.
Fully specified predications |
| After the assignment of syntactic and
pragmatic functions we have reached the level of fully specified
clause structures. On the one hand the structure contains all
the information required to determine the semantic content of
the expression concerned, and, on the other, it has everything
that is needed to trigger the expression rules, which will map
the underlying clause structure onto the appropriate form. |
|
| |
| 2.10.
Expression rules |
The expression rules form the
last component in the model. The Expression rules determine
the way in which functional structures are mapped onto the morpho-syntactic
structures of linguistic expressions. The following sorts of
expression devices can be distinguished:
16.
Expression rules may be sensitive to operators and also to syntactic,
semantic, and pragmatic functions. Semantic and syntactic functions,
but especially pragmatic functions are relevant for expression
rules concerning intonation and the order of constituents.
The actual ordering patterns found in a language are taken to
be the result of a number of principles, some of which will be
mentioned here.
- A language makes a basic choice between Prefield and Postfield
ordering of the dependents with respect to their Center
(= Predicate, Head Noun, or Adjective).
If this principle were the only principle determining constituent
ordering, there would be only two language types, with the following
ordering patterns:
17.
A second principle is:
- The Subject position precedes the Object position
This principle defines the following basic orders for Prefield
and Postfield languages:
18.
Two other principles are:
- There is a universally relevant clause-initial special
postion P1, which is used for special purposes, including
the placement of constituents with Topic or Focus function.
- Other things being equal, constituents prefer to be placed
in order of increasing complexity, where complexity of constituents
is defined as follows:
Clitic < Pronoun < Noun Phrase < Adpositional Phrase < Subordinate
clause
This hierarchy is usually referred to
as LIPOC (Language Independent Preferred Order of Constituents).
Given these principles, it is possible to formulate a basic
functional pattern underlying clauses. Consider (19) where P2
and P3 indicate the positions for extra-clausal constituents.
19.
|
|
